Land-use dynamics and grassland succession challenges in the Natura 2000 site Kras: The socioeconomic perspective

Danijel Davidović; Jure Čuš; Danijel Ivajnšič

doi:10.3986/AGS.14021

Authors

Danijel Davidović University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3515-6139
Jure Čuš Independent researcher, Voličina, Slovenia
Danijel Ivajnšič University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4419-5295

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.14021

Keywords:

geography, biodiversity, ecosystem services, ecological succession, semi-natural grasslands, Agri-Environment Climate Scheme (AECS), Slovenia

Abstract

Grasslands in the Natura 2000 site Kras are biodiversity hotspots with ecological, cultural and socioeconomic importance. However, the region faces challenges due to grassland loss and encroachment of forests and shrubs. This study examines land-use changes from 2002 to 2024 and the socioeconomic factors influencing these dynamics. Spatial analysis revealed substantial declines in grasslands, predominantly replaced by overgrown areas and forests. Socioeconomic factors such as farm holder age, livestock density and proximity to forests and roads showed complex interactions affecting grassland persistence, loss and gain. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted conservation measures integrating adaptive grazing, sustainable forestry and enhanced policy support to balance grassland conservation with economic viability.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Araújo, M. B., Alagador, D., Cabeza, M., Nogués-Bravo, D., Thuiller, W. 2011: Climate change threatens European conservation areas: Climate change threatens conservation areas. Ecology Letters 14-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01610.x

Bai, Y., Cotrufo, M. F. 2022: Grassland soil carbon sequestration: Current understanding, challenges, and solutions. Science 377-6606. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo2380

Bartual, A. M., Sutter, L., Bocci, G., Moonen, A.-C., Cresswell, J., Entling, M., Giffard, B. et al. 2019: The potential of different semi-natural habitats to sustain pollinators and natural enemies in European agricultural landscapes. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.04.009

Biró, M., Czúcz, B., Horváth, F., Révész, A., Csatári, B., Molnár, Z. 2013: Drivers of grassland loss in Hungary during the post-socialist transformation (1987–1999). Landscape Ecology 28-5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-012-9818-0

Chytrý, M., Dražil, T., Hájek, M., Kalníková, V., Preislerová, Z., Šibík, J., Ujházy, K. et al. 2015: The most species-rich plant communities in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (with new world records). Preslia 87-3.

Dahlström, A., Iuga, A.-M., Lennartsson, T. 2013: Managing biodiversity rich hay meadows in the EU: a comparison of Swedish and Romanian grasslands. Environmental Conservation 40-2. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0376892912000458

Damgaard, C. 2022: Spatio-temporal modelling of the effect of selected environmental and land-use factors on species-rich calcareous grasslands: overgrazing and nitrogen deposition. Basic and Applied Ecology 72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2023.07.001

Dasselaar, A. van den P., Golinski, P., Hennessy, D., Huyghe, C., Parente, G., Peyraud, J. L., Stienezen, M. W. J. 2013: Appreciation of current and future functions of grassland by international stakeholders in Europe. In: The Role of Grasslands in a Green Future: Threats and Perspectives in Less Favoured Areas. Proceedings of the 17th Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, Akureyri, Iceland, 23–26 June 2013. CABI.

Davidovič, D., Ivajnšič, D., Čuš, J. 2022: Interakcija naravnih in družbenih razmer kot pospeševalec zaraščanja Krasa. In: Primeri prostorskih analiz vplivov podnebnih sprememb: Monografija v okviru projekta Preprečevanje toplotnega stresa v urbanih sistemih v luči podnebnih sprememb (ARRS J7-1822). Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba. https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fnm.8.2022.5

Deng, X., Huang, J., Huang, Q., Rozelle, S., Gibson, J. 2011: Do roads lead to grassland degradation or restoration? A case study in Inner Mongolia, China. Environment and Development Economics 16-6. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X11000180

Dengler, J., Janišová, M., Török, P., Wellstein, C. 2014: Biodiversity of Palaearctic grasslands: A synthesis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.12.015

Eastman, R. J. 2024: TerrSet liberaGIS: Geospatial monitoring and modelling system. Clark University.

Eldridge, D. J., Soliveres, S., Bowker, M. A., Val, J. 2013: Grazing dampens the positive effects of shrub encroachment on ecosystem functions in a semi-arid woodland. Journal of Applied Ecology 50-4. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12105

Envall, I., Bengtsson, J., Jakobsson, S., Rundlöf, M., Åberg, C., Lindborg, R. 2021: What is the effect of giving the grazers access to additional nutrient sources on biodiversity in semi-natural pastures? A systematic review protocol. Environmental Evidence 10-1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-021-00230-2

Eriksson, O. 2022: Coproduction of food, cultural heritage and biodiversity by livestock grazing in Swedish semi-natural grasslands. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.801327

Favretto, D., Poldini, L. 1986: Extinction time of a sample of Karst pastures due to bush encroachment. Ecological Modelling 33-2,4. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3800(86)90033-5

Feoli, E., Chiapella, L. F. 1979: Changements of vegetation pattern towards reforestation. Colloquia Phytosociology 8.

Feoli, E., Feoli-Chiapella, L., Ganis, P., Sorge, A. 1980: Spatial pattern analysis of abandoned grasslands of the Karst region by Trieste and Gorizia. Studia Geobot 1-1.

Feoli, E., Scimone, M. 1982: Gradient analysis in the spontaneous reforestation process of the Karst region. Gortania 3.

Ferreira-Rodríguez, N., Pavel, A. B., Cogălniceanu, D. 2021: Integrating expert opinion and traditional ecological knowledge in invasive alien species management: Corbicula in Eastern Europe as a model. Biological Invasions 23-4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-020-02420-4

Fox, J., Marquez, M. M., Bouchet-Valat, M. 2024: Rcmdr: R Commander. R package version 2.9-5. Software.

Gigante, D., Angelucci, S., Bonini, F., Caruso, F., Di Cecco, V., Donnini, D., Morbidini, L. et al. 2024: Seminatural grasslands: An emblematic challenge for nature conservation in protected areas. Land 13-3. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13030386

Guo, Y., Chen, Y. 2024: A review of the impact of grazing on grassland ecosystems: Research progress and prospects. Advances in Resources Research 4-3. https://doi.org/10.50908/arr.4.3_455

Habič, P. 1979: Problematika geografskega vrednotenja krasa. Geografski vestnik 51.

Hejcman, M., Hejcmanová, P., Pavlů, V., Beneš, J. 2013: Origin and history of grasslands in Central Europe – a review. Grass and Forage Science 68-3. https://doi.org/10.1111/gfs.12066

Hopkins, A., Holz, B. 2006: Grassland for agriculture and nature conservation: Production, quality and multi-functionality. Agronomy research 4-1.

Horvatić, S. 1973: Syntaxonomic analysis of the vegetation of dry grassland and stony meadows in Eastern Adriatic coastal karst district based on the latest phytocoenological research. Fragmenta Herbologica Jugoslavica 32.

Hrvatin, M., Perko, D., Petek, F. 2006: Land use in selected erosion-risk areas of Tertiary low hills in Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 46-1. https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS46103

Hülber, K., Moser, D., Sauberer, N., Maas, B., Staudinger, M., Grass, V., Wrbka, T., Willner, W. 2017: Plant species richness decreased in semi-natural grasslands in the Biosphere Reserve Wienerwald, Austria, over the past two decades, despite agri-environmental measures. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2017.04.002

Iberl, K., Poschlod, P., Reisch, C. 2023: Restoration of calcareous grasslands by natural recolonization after forest clearing and its impact on the genetic variation of three common herb species. Biodiversity and Conservation 32-2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02518-2

Ivajnšič, D., Devetak, D. 2020: GIS-based modelling reveals the fate of antlion habitats in the Deliblato Sands. Scientific Reports 10-1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62305-3

Ivajnšič, D., Kaligarič, M. 2015: Can evapotranspiration be considered an additional indicator for understanding the changed landscape identity of the classic Karst? Annales. Series historia naturalis 25-2.

Ivajnšič, D., Pintarič, D., Škornik, S., Kaligarič, M., Pipenbaher, N. 2018: SOSKOPOP Haloze: podporni sistem potencialnim uveljaviteljem ukrepov KOPOP na nivoju travišč. Revija za geografijo 14-1.

Ivajnšič, D., Škornik, S., Kaligarič, M. 2013: Spremembe rabe tal med leti 1830 in 2008 na območju Movraškega Krasa in na bližnjih flišnih predelih. Revija za geografijo 8-1.

Jančar, T. 2014: Uničujoč vpliv kmetijske politike na travniške ptice. Svet ptic 20-2.

Jugovic, J., Črne, M., Pečnikar, Ž. F. 2013: The impact of grazing, overgrowth and mowing on spring butterfly (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) assemblages on dry karst meadows and pastures. Natura Croatica 22-1.

Kaligarič, M., Culiberg, M., Kramberger, B. 2006: Recent vegetation history of the North Adriatic grasslands: Expansion and decay of an anthropogenic habitat. Folia Geobotanica 41-3. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02904940

Kaligarič, M., Čuš, J., Škornik, S., Ivajnšič, D. 2019: The failure of agri-environment measures to promote and conserve grassland biodiversity in Slovenia. Land Use Policy 80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.10.013

Kaligarič, M., Ivajnšič, D. 2014: Vanishing landscape of the “classic” Karst: changed landscape identity and projections for the future. Landscape and Urban Planning 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.09.004

Kaligarič, M., Poldini, L. 1996: New contributions on the typology of the vegetation of dry grasslands (Scorzoneretalia villosae H-IĆ 1975) in the North Adriatic karst. Gortania 19.

Kaligarič, M., Škornik, S. 2002: Contribution to the knowledge of the dry grassland vegetation on the highland areas of the Pohorje mountain (Slovenia). Annales. Series historia naturalis 12-1.

Kladnik, D. 2011: Širjenje gozda na krasu kot dejavnik prostorskega razvoja. Geografski vestnik 83-2.

Kmecl, P., Figelj, J., Jančar, T. 2014: Monitoring splošno razširjenih vrst ptic za določitev slovenskega indeksa ptic kmetijske krajine – poročilo za leto 2014. Technical report. DOPPS.

Kose, M., Melts, I., Heinsoo, K. 2022: Medicinal plants in semi-natural grasslands: Impact of management. Plants 11-3. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11030353

Lacasella, F., Gratton, C., De Felici, S., Isaia, M., Zapparoli, M., Marta, S., Sbordoni, V. 2015: Asymmetrical responses of forest and “beyond edge” arthropod communities across a forest–grassland ecotone. Biodiversity and Conservation 24-3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0825-0

Lausi, D., Pignatti, S., Poldini, L. 1979: Statistische Untersuchungen über die Wiederbewaldung auf dem Triester Karst. In: Gesellschaftsentwicklung (Syndynamik). Berichte der Internationalen Symposien der Internationalen Vereinigung für Vegetationskunde 11. Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-7593-7_31

Liang, M., Liang, C., Hautier, Y., Wilcox, K. R., Wang, S. 2021: Grazing-induced biodiversity loss impairs grassland ecosystem stability at multiple scales. Ecology Letters 24-10. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13826

Liu, Y.-F., Liu, Y., Shi, Z.-H., López-Vicente, M., Wu, G.-L. 2020: Effectiveness of re-vegetated forest and grassland on soil erosion control in the semi-arid Loess Plateau. CATENA 195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104787

Loos, J., Krauss, J., Lyons, A., Föst, S., Ohlendorf, C., Racky, S., Röder, M. et al. 2021: Local and landscape responses of biodiversity in calcareous grasslands. Biodiversity and Conservation 30-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02201-y

Mekonen, S. 2017: Roles of traditional ecological knowledge for biodiversity conservation. Journal of Natural Sciences Research 7-15.

Milazzo, F., Francksen, R. M., Abdalla, M., Ravetto Enri, S., Zavattaro, L., Pittarello, M., Hejduk, S. et al. 2023: An overview of permanent grassland grazing management practices and the impacts on principal soil quality indicators. Agronomy 13-5. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051366

Milcu, A., Hanspach, J., Abson, D., Fischer, J. 2013: Cultural ecosystem services: A literature review and prospects for future research. Ecology and Society 18-3. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05790-180344

Mosquera-Losada, M. R., Santiago-Freijanes, J. J., Rois-Díaz, M., Moreno, G., den Herder, M., Aldrey-Vázquez, J. A., Ferreiro-Domínguez, N. et al. 2018: Agroforestry in Europe: A land management policy tool to combat climate change. Land Use Policy 78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.06.052

Nita, A., Hartel, T., Manolache, S., Ciocanea, C. M., Miu, I. V., Rozylowicz, L. 2019: Who is researching biodiversity hotspots in Eastern Europe? A case study on the grasslands in Romania. PLoS ONE 14-5. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217638

Pedley, D., McWilliam, W., Doscher, C. 2023: Forests from the grass: Natural regeneration of woody vegetation in temperate marginal hill farmland under minimum interference management. Restoration Ecology 31-3. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13852

Perko, D., Hrvatin, M., Ciglič, R. 2017: Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-1. https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4618

Pipenbaher, N., Kaligarič, M., Škornik, S. 2011: Floristic and functional comparision of karst pastures and karst meadows from the North Adriatic Karst. Acta Carsologica 40-3. https://doi.org/10.3986/ac.v40i3.61

Poldini, L. 1989: La vegetazione del Carso isontino e triestino: studio del paesaggio vegetale fra Trieste, Gorizia e i Territori Adiacenti. Lint.

Premaratne, S., Somasiri, S. 2015: Strengthening livelihood of rural farmer populations through improved grasslands. In: Proceedings of the 23rd International Grassland Congress. Range Management Society of India.

Reed, H. E., Seastedt, T. R., Blair, J. M. 2005: Ecological consequences of C4 grass invasion of a C4 grassland: A dilemma for management. Ecological Applications 15-5. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-0407

Reeg, J., Strigl, L., Jeltsch, F. 2022: Agricultural buffer zone thresholds to safeguard functional bee diversity: Insights from a community modeling approach. Ecology and Evolution 12-3. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.8748

Rendeková, A., Miškovic, J., Mičieta, K., Michalová, M., Eliašová, M., Ballová, D. 2020: Changes in the diversity of dry calcareous grasslands after abandonment of traditional management in Devínska Kobyla national nature reserve (Southwestern Slovakia, Central Europe). Ekológia (Bratislava) 39-2. https://doi.org/10.2478/eko-2020-0008

Ribeiro, D., Šmid Hribar, M. 2019: Assessment of land-use changes and their impacts on ecosystem services in two Slovenian rural landscapes. Acta geographica Slovenica 59-2. https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.6636

Rogerson, M., Brown, D. K., Sandercock, G., Wooller, J.-J., Barton, J. 2016: A comparison of four typical green exercise environments and prediction of psychological health outcomes. Perspectives in Public Health 136-3. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757913915589845

Rook, A. J., Tallowin, J. R. B. 2003: Grazing and pasture management for biodiversity benefit. Animal Research 52-2. https://doi.org/10.1051/animres:2003014

Rösch, V., Tscharntke, T., Scherber, C., Batáry, P. 2013: Landscape composition, connectivity and fragment size drive effects of grassland fragmentation on insect communities. Journal of Applied Ecology 50-2. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12056

Rousset, C., Segura, C., Gilgen, A., Alfaro, M., Mendes, L. A., Dodd, M., Dashpurev, B. et al. 2024: What evidence exists relating the impact of different grassland management practices to soil carbon in livestock systems? A systematic map protocol. Environmental Evidence 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-024-00345-2

Sangha, S. 2024: Ecosystem Services and Urban Planning. Journal of Applied Geographical Studies 3-1. https://doi.org/10.47941/jags.1621

Schils, R. L. M., Bufe, C., Rhymer, C. M., Francksen, R. M., Klaus, V. H., Abdalla, M., Milazzo, F. et al. 2022: Permanent grasslands in Europe: Land use change and intensification decrease their multifunctionality. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2022.107891

Shipley, J. R., Frei, E. R., Bergamini, A., Boch, S., Schulz, T., Ginzler, C., Barandun, M. et al. 2024: Agricultural practices and biodiversity: Conservation policies for semi-natural grasslands in Europe. Current Biology 34-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.062

Škornik, S., Vidrih, M., Kaligarič, M. 2010: The effect of grazing pressure on species richness, composition and productivity in North Adriatic Karst pastures. Plant Biosystems – An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 144-2. https://doi.org/10.1080/11263501003750250

Söderström, B., Svensson, B., Vessby, K., Glimskär, A. 2001: Plants, insects and birds in semi-natural pastures in relation to local habitat and landscape factors. Biodiversity & Conservation 10-11. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013153427422

Staude, I. R., Segar, J., Temperton, V. M., Andrade, B. O., de Sá Dechoum, M., Weidlich, E. W. A., Overbeck, G. E. 2023: Prioritize grassland restoration to bend the curve of biodiversity loss. Restoration Ecology 31-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13931

Stepišnik, U. 2011: Sediments in collapse dolines on the Kras plateau, Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 51-2. https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS51201

Sucholas, J., Molnár, Z., Łuczaj, Ł., Poschlod, P. 2022: Local traditional ecological knowledge about hay management practices in wetlands of the Biebrza Valley, Poland. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-022-00509-9

Šumrada, T., Erjavec, E. 2023: Will farmers cooperate to conserve biodiversity? The use of collective bonus in the High Nature Value farmland in Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 63-3. https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.11015

Tindale, S., Vicario-Modroño, V., Gallardo-Cobos, R., Hunter, E., Miškolci, S., Price, P. N., Sánchez-Zamora, P. et al. 2023: Citizen perceptions and values associated with ecosystem services from European grassland landscapes. Land Use Policy 127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106574

Tüxen, R., Horvat, I., Tüxen, R. 1974: Vegetation Südosteuropas: Tab. = Vegetation of Southeast-Europe. Geobotanica selecta / hrsg. von R. Tüxen. G. Fischer.

Van Den Pol-van Dasselaar, A., Hennessy, D., Isselstein, J. 2020: Grazing of dairy cows in Europe—An in-depth analysis based on the perception of grassland experts. Sustainability 12-3. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12031098

Veldkamp, A., Lambin, E. F. 2001: Predicting land-use change. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 85-1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00199-2

Wilson, J. B., Peet, R. K., Dengler, J., Pärtel, M. 2012: Plant species richness: The world records. Journal of Vegetation Science 23-4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2012.01400.x

Wolański, P., Bobiec, A., Ortyl, B., Makuch-Pietraś, I., Czarnota, P., Ziobro, J., Korol, M. et al. 2021: The importance of livestock grazing at woodland-grassland interface in the conservation of rich oakwood plant communities in temperate Europe. Biodiversity and Conservation 30-3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02115-9

Zhao, Y., Liu, Z., Wu, J. 2020: Grassland ecosystem services: A systematic review of research advances and future directions. Landscape Ecology 35-4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-00980-3

Zorn, M., Kumer, P., Ferk, M. 2015: From forest to forest or where is the bare rocky Karst? Kronika 63-3.

Žuna Pfeiffer, T., Špoljarić Maronić, D., Petrošanec, S., Štolfa Čamagajevac, I., Stević, F. 2018: Steppe-like grassland as a refuge of the wild edible and medicinal plant species in anthropogenic landscape in northeastern Croatia. Plant Biosystems – An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 152-5. https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2017.1415992

Zwitter, Ž., Rasran, L. 2023: Okoljska zgodovina med interdisciplinarnimi izzivi in rešitvami. In: Izzivi slovenskega zgodovinopisja v 21. stoletju: jubilejno 40. zborovanje slovenskih zgodovinark in zgodovinarjev. Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije. Žgavec, D., Eler, K., Udovč, A., Batič, F. 2013: Contribution of agricultural policy measures to maintain grassland areas (the case of Radensko Polje Landscape Park). Acta agriculturae Slovenica 101-1. https://doi.org/10.14720/aas.2013.101.1.14949