Seeking Care in the Neighboring Country: An Institutional Analysis of Transnational Care for Older People Between Slovenia and Croatia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3986/2025.2.8Keywords:
care for older people, care gap, transnationalization of care, retirement migration, hybrid transnational careAbstract
Using the concepts of care gap, transnationalization of care, and retirement migration—and based on interviews with stakeholders and an institutional analysis of care provision for older people in Slovenia and Croatia—the article examines retirement care migration between the two countries. It shows that the marketization of care in Croatia matches the care gap in public provision in Slovenia, which establishes “precarious hybrid transnational care.” Older people use two strategies—citizenship rights and the market—to access cheaper residential care across the border, though of lower quality than in Slovenia. The study shows that transnational care can arise out of specific national institutional configurations of care.
Downloads
References
Amelina, A., & Lutz, H. (2019). Gender and Migration. Transnational and intersectional prospects. Routledge.
Anderson, B. (2019). New Directions in Migration Studies: Towards Methodological De-nationalism. Comparative Migration Studies, 7(36). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-019-0140-8
Aulenbacher, B., Lutz, H., Palenga Möllenbeck, E., & Schwiter. K. (Eds.). (2024). Home Care for Sale. The Transnational Brokering of Senior Care in Europe. London: Sage.
Bađun, M. (2024). Long-Term Care Workforce in Croatia: A Qualitative Study on the Potential Role of Immigration. Revija za socijalnu politiku, 31(3), 261–278. https://doi.org/10.3935/rsp.v31i3.33
Baldassar, L. (2007). Transnational Families and the Provision of Moral and Emotional Support: The Relationship between Truth and Distance. Identities, 14(4), 385–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/10702890701578423
Bender, D., & Schweppe, C. (2019). Care facilities for Germans in Thailand and Poland: Making Old Age Care Abroad Legitimate. International Journal of Ageing and Later Life, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.3384/ijal.1652-8670.18421
Bender, D., Hollstein, T., Horn, V., Huber, L., & Schweppe, C. (2014). Old age care facilities and care-seeking elderly on the move. Transnational Social Review, 4(2–3), 290–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/21931674.2014.964022
Bender, D., Hollstein, T., & Schweppe, C. (2018). International Retirement Migration Revisited: From Amenity Seeking to Precarity Migration? Transnational Social Review, 8(1), 98–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/21931674.2018.1429080
Bender, D., Hollstein, T., & Schweppe, C. (2020). Old Age Facilities for German-Speaking People in Thailand – a New Facet of International Migration in Old Age. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(7), 1497–1512. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1521266
Benson, M., & O’Reilly, K. (2009). Migration and the Search for a Better Way of Life: A Critical Exploration of Lifestyle Migration. The Sociological Review, 57(4), 608–625. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2009.01864.x
Bettio, F., & Verashchagina, A. (2010). Long-term Care for the Elderly: Provisions and providers in 33 European countries. European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/files/elderly_care_en.pdf
Croucher, S. (2012). Privileged Mobility in an Age of Globality. Societies, 2(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc2010001
Čeh, S. (2019, March 14). Hrvaški družinski domovi. Delo.si. https://www.delo.si/novice/slovenija/hrvaski-druzinski-domovi
Držaj, P. (2017, September 3). Cenejši hrvaški domovi za starejše čez mejo zvabili tudi Slovence. RTV Slovenija. https://www.rtvslo.si/slovenija/cenejsi-hrvaski-domovi-za-starejse-cez-mejo-zvabili-tudi-slovence/431577
Gavanas, A. (2017). Swedish Retirement Migrant Communities in Spain: Privatization, informalization and Moral Economy Filling Transnational Care Gaps. Nordic Journal of Migration Research, 7(3), Art. 3. https://doi.org/10.1515/njmr-2017-0026
Gradonačelnik.hr. (2023, October 13). Istražili smo – evo kakvi su kapaciteti, cijene i liste čekanja u državnim, gradskim i županijskim domovima za starije. https://gradonacelnik.hr/analize-top-10/konacno-se-grade-novi-domovi-za-starije-evo-kakvi-su-kapaciteti-cijene-i-liste-cekanja-u-drzavnim-gradskim-opcinskim-i-zupanijskim-domovima
Großmann, S., & Schweppe C. (2020). Just Like in Germany, Only Better? Old-age Care Facilities in Poland for People from Germany and the Question of Legitimacy. Ageing and Society, 40(4), 823–841. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X18001290
Hochschild, A. R. (2000). Global Care Chains and Emotional Surplus Value. In W. Hutton & A. Giddens (Eds.), On the Edge: Living with Global Capitalism (pp. 124–138). Jonathan Cape.
Horn, V., Schweppe, C., & Bender, D. (2015). “Moving (for) Elder Care Abroad”: The Fragile Promises of Old-Age Care Facilities for Elderly Germans in Thailand. In V. Horn & C. Schweppe (Eds.), Transnational Aging (pp. 163–177). Routledge.
Hrženjak, M. (2019). Multi-local and Cross-border Care Loops: Comparison of Childcare and Eldercare Policies in Slovenia. Journal of European Social Policy, 29(5), 640–652. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928719868439
Hrženjak, M., & Breznik, M. (2023). Care Migration in Care Homes for Older People in the European Semi-periphery between Slovenia and Former Yugoslav Countries. In M. Vah Jevšnik & K. Toplak (Eds.), Further discussions on labor mobility in the EU (pp. 79–102). Založba ZRC. https://doi.org/10.3986/9789610508021_04
Iorio, M. (2020). Italian Retirement Migration: Stories from Bulgaria. Geoforum, 111, 198–207.
Janoschka, M., & Haas, H. (Eds.). (2013). Contested spatialities, lifestyle migration and residential tourism. Routledge.
King, R., & Patterson, G. (1998). Diverse Paths: The Elderly British in Tuscany. International Journal of Population Geography, 4(2), 157–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1220(199806)4:2<157::AID-IJPG100>3.0.CO;2-G
King, R., Warnes, A. M., & Williams, A. M. (1998). International Retirement Migration in Europe. International Journal of Population Geography, 4(2), 91–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1220(199806)4:2<91::AID-IJPG97>3.0.CO;2-S
Klempić Bogadi, S., & Podgorelec, S. (2024). Challenges of Getting Old in Croatia. In K. N. Zafeiris, B. Kotzamanis & C. Skiadas (Eds.), Population Studies in the Western Balkans. European Studies of Population, Vol 26, (pp. 211–230). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53088-3_9
Kovač, N., & Petrič, M. (2023). Spremljanje storitve pomoči za družino: Storitev pomoč na domu – Analiza stanja v letu 2022, končno poročilo. IRSSV. https://irssv.si/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Analiza-izvajanja-PND-v-2022.pdf
Kramberger, L. S. (2016, September 26). Vse več slovenskih starostnikov v tujih domovih za ostarele. Prlekija-on.net. https://www.prlekija-on.net/lokalno/12799/vse-vec-slovenskih-starostnikov-v-tujih-domovih-za-ostarele.html
Leskošek, V. (2019). Poverty of Older Women in Slovenia. Revija za socijalnu politiku, 26(2), 227–240.
Levitt, P., Dobbs, E., & Chich-Yan Sun, K. (2023). Transnational social protection: Social welfare across national borders. Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197666821.001.0001
Manojlović, N. (2020). Obiteljski domovi kao rastući vid obiteljskog poduzetništva i otvaranja novih radnih mjesta. Obrazovanje za poduzetništvo, 10(2), 107–125.
Mali, J. (2008). Od hiralnic do domov za stare ljudi. Založba FSD.
Mosuela, C. C. (2020). Recuperating the Global Migration of Nurses. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44580-5
OECD. (2023, July 28). Improving Long-Term Care in Croatia. OECD Health Policy Studies. https://doi.org/10.1787/9de55222-en
O’Reilly, K. (2000). The British on the Costa del Sol: Transnational identities and local communities. Routledge.
O’Reilly, K., & Benson, M. (2016). From Lifestyle Migration to Lifestyle in Migration: Categories, Concepts and Ways of Thinking. Migration Studies, 4(1), 20–37. https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnv015
Ormond, M. E., & Toyota, M. (2016). Confronting Economic Precariousness through International Retirement Migration: Japan’s Old-age “Economic Refugees” and Germany’s “Exported Grannies. In J. M. Rickley-Boyd, K. Hannam & M. Mostafanezhad (Eds.), Tourism and Leisure Mobilities: Politics, Work and Play (pp. 134–146). Routledge.
Parreňas Salazar, R. (2001). Servants of Globalization. Women, Migration, and Domestic Work. University Press.
Savaş, E. B., Spaan, J., Henkens, K., Kalmijn, M., & Van Dalen, H. P. (2023). Migrating to a New Country in Late Life: A Review of the Literature on International Retirement Migration. Demographic Research, 48, 233–270. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2023.48.9
Schwiter, K., Brütsch, J., & Pratt, G. (2020). Sending Granny to Chiang Mai: Debating global outsourcing of care for the elderly. Global Networks, 20, 106–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12231
Skupnost socialnih zavodov Slovenije. (2022, November). Poudarki iz analiz področja institucionalnega varstva starejših in posebnih skupin odraslih. https://www.ssz-slo.si/wp-content/uploads/POUDARKI-IZ-ANALIZ-2021.pdf-kon%C4%8Dna-verzija.pdf
Skupnost socialnih zavodov Slovenije. (2024, April 16). V socialnovarstvenih zavodih se kopičijo težave, vladni ukrepi pa so prepočasni in pomanjkljivi. https://www.ssz-slo.si/v-socialnovarstvenih-zavodih-se-kopicijo-tezave-vladni-ukrepi-pa-so-prepocasni-in-pomanjkljivi
Socialna inšpekcija. (2021). Inšpekcijski nadzori v letu 2020 za storitve institucionalno varstvo, pomoč družini na domu kot socialna oskrba na domu, socialni servis, za naloge občin in za izvajanje socialno varstvenih storitev brez ustreznih podlag. https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.si%2Fassets%2Forgani-v-sestavi%2FIRSD%2FSocialne-zadeve%2FVsebinsko-porocilo-2020-koncno-.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK
Spasova, S., Baeten, R., Coster, S., Ghailani, D., Peña-Casas, R., & Vanhercke, B. (2018, September 25). Challenges in long-term care in Europe. A study of national policies 2018. AGE Platform Europe. https://www.age-platform.eu/publications/challenges-long-term-care-europe-study-national-policies-2018
Srpčič, M. (2018, April 11). Vse več starostnikov v hrvaške domove. Posavski obzornik. https://www.posavskiobzornik.si/prejeli-smo/vse-vec-starostnikov-v-hrvaske-domove-83526
Toyota, M., & Xiang, B. (2012). The Emerging Transitional Retirement Industry in Southeast Asia. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 32, 708–719. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443331211280737
Triandafyllidou, A., & Marchetti, S. (2013). Migrant Domestic and Care Workers in Europe: New patterns of circulation? Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 11(4), 339–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2013.822750
Udruga obiteljskih domova (2024). Tko smo mi? https://uod.hr
UN Women Training Centre. (2014). Reading Paper Series on Care Economy. https://colectivaxxk.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Care_Economy_Book_EN.pdf
Varuh človekovih pravic RS. (2018, February 13). Kritične razmere v domovih za starejše. https://www.varuh-rs.si/sporocila-za-javnost/novica/kriticne-razmere-v-domovih-za-starejse
Widding Isaksen, L. (2012). Transnational Spaces of Care: Migrant Nurses in Norway. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 19(1), 58–77. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxr029
Widding Isaksen, L., & Näre, L. (2019). Local Loops and Micro-mobilities of Care: Rethinking care in egalitarian contexts. Journal of European Social Policy, 29(5), 593–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928719879669
Williams, A. M., King, R., & Warnes, T. (1997). A Place in the Sun: International Retirement Migration from Northern to Southern Europe. European Urban and Regional Studies, 4(2), 115–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/096977649700400202
Yeates, N. (2009). Globalizing Care Economies and Migrant Workers: Explorations in Global Care Chains. Palgrave Macmillan.
Yeates, N. (2011). Going Global: The Transnationalization of Care. Development and Change, 4(2), 1109–1130. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2011.01718.x
Zore, J. (2018, March 12). Vse več starostnikov v hrvaške domove. Delo.si. https://old.delo.si/novice/slovenija/vse-vec-starostnikov-v-hrvaske-domove.html
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors guarantee that the work is their own original creation and does not infringe any statutory or common-law copyright or any proprietary right of any third party. In case of claims by third parties, authors commit their self to defend the interests of the publisher, and shall cover any potential costs.
More in: Submission chapter
