The Vulnerability of Migrants From Bulgaria to Human Trafficking for Labor Exploitation
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3986/2025.1.6Keywords:
migration, human trafficking, labor exploitation, inequalities, BulgariaAbstract
The article analyzes the vulnerability of labor migrants from Bulgaria to traffickers and exploiters. Based on in-depth interviews with victims and experts in the field of human trafficking, the authors identify the main factors for falling into trafficking and the methods of recruiting and exploiting victims. The article answers the question as to why this phenomenon remains so persistent over time. A worrisome trend has been observed where victims perceive exploitation as a regular aspect of their employment abroad. The authors point out that reducing migrants’ vulnerability largely depends on the broader national socioeconomic context, global inequalities, and the demand for cheap labor.
Downloads
References
Amnesty International. (2012). Exploited Labor: Migrant Workers in Italy`s Agricultural Sector. Amnesty International.
Bales, K. (2004). Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. University of California Press.
Barslund, M., & Busse, M. (2014). Making the Most of EU Labor Mobility. CEPS Task Force Reports. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2507228
Berbec, S., Stoisavlevici, L. Е., Ilcheva, М., Mousmouti, М., Malandraki, D., Delle Cese, F., Santoro, G., Lupascu, L., & Venzke, N. A. (2019). Human Trafficking and the Economic/Business Sectors Susceptible to be Involved in the Demand and Supply Chain of Products and Services Resulting from Victims’ Exploitation. Association Pro Refugiu Romania. https://csd.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/publications_library/files/2019_04/NET-COMBAT-CHAIN_Study_Report_EN.pdf
Bezlov, Т., Gounev, P., Petrunov, G., Tsenkov, Е., & Tsvetkova, М. (2007). Organized Crime in Bulgaria: Markets and Trends. CSD.
Chuang, J. (2006). Beyond a Snapshot: Preventing Human Trafficking in the Global Economy. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 13(1), 137–163.
Cockbain, E., Bowers, K., & Dimitrova, G. (2018). Human trafficking for labor exploitation: the results of a two-phase systematic review mapping the European evidence base and synthesising key scientific research evidence. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 14, 319–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-017-9321-3
CITUB – Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria. (2018). Third Annual Report of the Confederation of Independent Trade Unions in Bulgaria on Violations of Labor Rights in 2017.
CSD – Centre for the Study of Democracy. (2019). Bulgarian Organised Crime Threat Assessment 2019. CSD.eu. https://csd.eu/publications/publication/bulgarian-organised-crime-threat-assessment-2019
De la Rica, S., Glitz, A., & Ortega, F. (2015). Immigration in Europe: Trends, Policies and Empirical Evidence. In B. Chiswick & P. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of the Economics of International Migration (pp. 1303–1362). North-Holland.
DiRienzo, C., & Das, J. (2018). Income Distribution and Human Trafficking Outflows. Review of European Studies, 10(2), 28–36. https://doi.org/10.5539/res.v10n2p28
Dorn, D., & Zweimüller, J. (2021). Migration and Labor Market Integration in Europe. IZA DP No. 14538. IZA – Institute of Labor Economics. https://docs.iza.org/dp14538.pdf
Dragiewicz, M. (2008). Teaching About Trafficking: Opportunities and Challenges for Critical Engagement. Feminist Teacher, 18(3), 185–201. https://doi.org/10.1353/ftr.0.0007
Dragiewicz, M. (2015). Introduction. In M. Dragiewicz (Еd.), Global Human Trafficking: Critical Issues and Contexts (pp. 1–6). Routledge.
ESC – Economic and Social Council of the Republic of Bulgaria. (2022). Opinion by ESC: Income Inequalities in Bulgaria. https://esc.bg/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/ESC_04_011_2022.pdf
European Commission. (2021, April 14). Fighting trafficking in human beings: New strategy to prevent trafficking, break criminal business models, protect and empower victims. EC.Europa.eu. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_1663
Europol. (2021). European Union Serious and Organised Crime Threat Assessment. Publications Office of the European Union. https://www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/socta2021_1.pdf
Eurostat. (2023а). Persons at risk of poverty or social exclusion by age and sex [ILC_PEPS01N]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ILC_PEPS01N/default/table
Eurostat. (2023b). Gini Coefficient of Equivalised Disposable Income – EU-SILC survey [ILC_DI12]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_di12/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. (2023c). In-work at-risk-of-poverty rate by age and sex – EU-SILC survey [ILC_IW01]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ILC_IW01/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. (2023d). Labour cost levels by NACE Rev. 2 activity [lc_lci_lev]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/LC_LCI_LEV__custom_709491/bookmark/table?lang=en&bookmarkId=eb78a6c4-aa9b-4210-ad86-6f9d003e1952
Frangež, D., & Bučar Ručman, A. (2017). Specific forms of human trafficking in Slovenia: overview and preventive measures. Police Practice and Research, 18(3), 230–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2017.1291562
GAATW. (2010). Beyond Borders: Exploring Links Between Trafficking and Migration. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women. https://gaatw.org/publications/WP_on_Migration.pdf
Jac-Kucharski, A. (2012). The Determinants of Human Trafficking: A US Case Study. International Migration, 50, 150–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2012.00777.x
Kaye, M. (2003). The Migration-Trafficking Nexus: Combating Trafficking Through the Protection of Migrants Human Rights. Anti-Slavery International.
Krasteva, V. (2019). Youth Employment and Precarious Jobs: The Case of Bulgaria. Prof. Marin Drinov Publishing House of Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
Lemaître, G. (2013). Satisfying Labor Needs in an Ageing Society. In J. W. Holtslag, M. Kremer & E. Schrijvers (Eds.), Making Migration Work: The Future of Labor Migration in the European Union (pp. 51–68). Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.26530/OAPEN_448322
Mahmoud, T., & Trebesch, C. (2010). The Economics of Human Trafficking and Labor Migration: Micro-evidence from Eastern Europe. Journal of Comparative Economics, 38, 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2010.02.001
Mattar, M. (2009). Trafficking in Persons: Global Overview, Current Trends, and Pathways Forward. John Hopkins University.
Mediana. (2009). Human Trafficking, Emigration, Sexual Exploitation. The National Commission for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings.
Milanovic, B. (2012). Global Inequality: From Class to Location, from Proletarians to Migrants. Global Policy, 3(2), 125–134. https://doi:10.1111/j.1758-5899.2012.00170.x
Milkman, R. (2020). Immigrant labor and the new precariat. Polity Press.
Mo, C. H. (2018). Perceived Relative Deprivation and Risk: An Aspiration-Based Model of Human Trafficking Vulnerability. Political Behavior, 40, 247–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-017-9401-0
NCCTHB – National Commission for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings. (2018). Annual Report for 2018 on the Implementation of the National Program for Prevention and Counteraction to Human Trafficking and Protection of Victims. https://antitraffic.government.bg/bg/about#about
NCCTHB – National Commission for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings. (2022). Annual Report for 2021 on the Implementation of the National Program for Prevention and Counteraction to Human Trafficking and Protection of Victims. https://antitraffic.government.bg/bg/about#reports
NSI – National Statistical Institute. (2022). External Migration by Citizenship – Total for the Country. Infostat.nsi.bg. https://infostat.nsi.bg/infostat/pages/reports/result.jsf?x_2=72
Nicholson, A. (2013). Transformations in the Law Concerning Slavery: Legacies of the Nineteenth Century Anti-Slavery Movement. In: W. Mulligan & M. Bric (Eds.), A Global History of Anti-slavery Politics in the Nineteenth Century (pp 214–236). Palgrave Macmillan.
Outshoorn, J. (2015). The Trafficking Policy Debates. In: M. Dragiewicz, (Ed.), Global Human Trafficking: Critical Issues and Contexts (pp. 7–22). Routledge.
Petrunov, G. (2014). Human Trafficking in Eastern Europe: The Case of Bulgaria. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 162–182.
Petrunov, G. (2018). Trafficking in Human Beings in the Era of Globalization. In T. Kliestik (Ed.), Globalization and its Socio-Economic Consequences. 18th International Scientific Conference Proceedings (pp. 807–812). University of Zilina. https://globalization.uniza.sk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/proceedings_globalization_2018_part_5.pdf
Petrunov, G. (2019). Elite Prostitution in Bulgaria: Experiences and Practices of Brokers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 16(2), 239–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-018-0353-x
Petrunov, G. (2023). Prostitution and Public Policy in Post-Socialist Bulgaria. Politička misao, 60(4), 11–34. https://doi.org/10.20901/pm.60.4.01
Statista. (2023). Average hourly labor cost in selected European countries in 2021. Statista.com. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1211601/hourly-labor-cost-in-europe
Shelley, L. (2010). Human trafficking: A global perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Shelley, L. (2014). Human smuggling and trafficking into Europe: A comparative perspective. Migration Policy Institute. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/BadActors-ShelleyFINALWEB.pdf
Skrobanek, S., & Sanghera. J. (1996). Sex trade and globalized traffic in women. Atlantis, 21(1), 95–99. https://journals.msvu.ca/index.php/atlantis/article/view/4131
UN General Assembly. (2000). Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. OHCHR.org. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/protocol-prevent-suppress-and-punish-trafficking-persons
UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2012). Assessment Guide of Criminal Justice Response to the Smuggling of Migrants. Unodoc.org. https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Migrant-Smuggling/UNODC_2012_Assessment_Guide_to_the_Criminal_Justice_Response_to_the_Smuggling_of_Migrants-EN.pdf
US Department of State. (2021). 2021 Trafficking in Person Report. https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-trafficking-in-persons-report
US Department of State. (2022). 2022 Trafficking in Person Report. https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report
Weitzer, R. (2009). Sociology of Sex Work. Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 213–234.
Wheaton, Е., Schauer, E., & Galli, T.V. (2010). Economics of Human Trafficking. International Migration, 48(4), 114–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00592.x
Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better. Allen Lane.
Downloads
Published
Versions
- 2025-02-26 (2)
- 2025-02-23 (1)
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors guarantee that the work is their own original creation and does not infringe any statutory or common-law copyright or any proprietary right of any third party. In case of claims by third parties, authors commit their self to defend the interests of the publisher, and shall cover any potential costs.
More in: Submission chapter
